Critical Illness-Related Corticosteroid Insufficiency (CIRCI) & Vasopressin Deficiency: A Clinical and Bedside Perspective

Dr Neeraj Manikath , claude.ai

Abstract

Critical illness-related corticosteroid insufficiency (CIRCI) and vasopressin deficiency represent complex endocrine disturbances in critically ill patients that challenge clinicians daily. This review synthesizes current evidence on cortisol measurement controversies, diagnostic approaches, disease-specific considerations, and emerging resuscitation strategies. We emphasize practical bedside applications for internists managing shock states, with particular attention to the interplay between adrenal and posterior pituitary dysfunction in vasodilatory shock.

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The Cortisol Stress Dose Controversy: Free vs. Total Cortisol Measurements in Hypoalbuminemia

The Binding Protein Dilemma

Approximately 90-95% of circulating cortisol is protein-bound—primarily to cortisol-binding globulin (CBG, 75-80%) and albumin (15-20%)—leaving only 5-10% as biologically active free cortisol. In critical illness, particularly when complicated by hypoalbuminemia, capillary leak, hepatic dysfunction, or nephrotic syndrome, this equilibrium becomes profoundly disrupted.¹

Pearl: The traditional total cortisol cutoff of <10 μg/dL (275 nmol/L) for diagnosing adrenal insufficiency becomes unreliable when albumin falls below 2.5 g/dL. A patient with albumin of 1.8 g/dL and total cortisol of 8 μg/dL may have adequate free cortisol levels for physiologic needs.

The Coolens Equation: A Bedside Tool

For centers without direct free cortisol assays, the Coolens equation provides an estimate:

Free cortisol (nmol/L) = Total cortisol (nmol/L) / (0.0167 + 0.182 × CBG concentration)

However, this requires CBG measurement, which is rarely available. A simplified approach uses albumin as a surrogate:

**Estimated free cortisol increases approximately 1.5-fold for every 1 g/dL decrease in albumin below 3.5 g/dL.**²

Clinical Application: The Traffic Light System

I propose a practical bedside framework:

Green Zone (Probably Sufficient):

• Total cortisol >15 μg/dL regardless of albumin
• Total cortisol 10-15 μg/dL with albumin >2.5 g/dL

Yellow Zone (Clinical Judgment Required):

• Total cortisol 10-15 μg/dL with albumin 2.0-2.5 g/dL
• Consider clinical context, shock severity, vasopressor requirements

Red Zone (Consider Supplementation):

• Total cortisol <10 μg/dL with albumin >2.5 g/dL
• Total cortisol <7 μg/dL regardless of albumin
• Refractory shock despite adequate resuscitation

Oyster: Direct measurement of free cortisol by equilibrium dialysis or ultrafiltration remains the gold standard but is expensive, time-consuming (24-48 hours), and available only in specialized centers. Salivary cortisol offers a reasonable surrogate in some settings but requires validation in critical illness.³

The CBG Degradation Phenomenon

Sepsis-induced neutrophil elastase cleaves CBG, releasing bound cortisol and potentially creating a "stress-adaptive" response. This means measured total cortisol may underestimate bioavailable hormone.⁴ Studies show CBG levels can drop to 30-40% of baseline in severe sepsis.

Clinical Hack: If you suspect hypoalbuminemia is affecting interpretation, draw cortisol simultaneously with comprehensive metabolic panel. If total cortisol is 8-12 μg/dL but albumin is 1.9 g/dL, check random ACTH. Inappropriately low-normal ACTH (<20 pg/mL) with marginal cortisol suggests true insufficiency; elevated ACTH (>50 pg/mL) suggests adequate stress response despite low total cortisol.

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Corticotropin (ACTH) Stimulation Test in Shock: Who, When, & How to Interpret

The Evolving Role of Cosyntropin Testing

The 2017 Society of Critical Care Medicine guidelines moved away from routine cosyntropin stimulation testing for CIRCI diagnosis, yet it remains valuable in selected scenarios.⁵ Understanding its nuances prevents misinterpretation.

Standard Protocol: The 250 μg Test

Procedure:

1. Draw baseline cortisol and ACTH
2. Administer 250 μg cosyntropin (ACTH₁₋₂₄) intravenously
3. Measure cortisol at 30 and 60 minutes

Traditional interpretation: Δ cortisol <9 μg/dL (248 nmol/L) suggests adrenal insufficiency.

Pearl: The 250 μg dose represents supraphysiologic stimulation (approximately 250 times normal ACTH surge). It primarily tests adrenal reserve, not physiologic responsiveness. A normal response doesn't exclude CIRCI.

Low-Dose (1 μg) Cosyntropin Testing

The 1 μg test theoretically provides more physiologic ACTH levels (~20-30 pg/mL), but requires precise dilution and immediate assay. Most hospital laboratories cannot reliably measure the lower cortisol increments.⁶

Oyster: The low-dose test increases diagnostic sensitivity for partial adrenal insufficiency but is impractical in most ICU settings. Technical errors in dilution are common, and cutoffs remain debated.

Who Should Be Tested?

Consider testing in:

1. Refractory hypotension: Requiring >0.5 μg/kg/min norepinephrine equivalent after adequate fluid resuscitation
2. Unexplained persistent shock: Despite source control and appropriate antibiotics
3. Suspected primary/secondary adrenal insufficiency:
   • History of chronic steroid use
   • Pituitary/hypothalamic disease
   • Bilateral adrenal hemorrhage/infarction
   • Medications: etomidate, ketoconazole, rifampin
4. Septic shock with hypoalbuminemia: When baseline cortisol is 8-15 μg/dL and clinical equipoise exists

Clinical Hack: The "delta cortisol" (stimulated minus baseline) matters more than absolute values in CIRCI. A robust Δ >9 μg/dL suggests intact adrenal reserve even if baseline is low-normal. Conversely, Δ <9 μg/dL with baseline >15 μg/dL indicates adrenal exhaustion despite apparently adequate baseline levels.⁷

When NOT to Test

• Hemodynamically stable patients: Testing rarely changes management
• After etomidate administration: Results will be suppressed for 24-48 hours
• During hydrocortisone therapy: Exogenous steroids cross-react with cortisol assays
• When treatment decision is already made: Don't delay indicated corticosteroids for testing

Pearl: If clinical suspicion for adrenal crisis is high (hypotension, hyperkalemia, hyponatremia, hypoglycemia), give dexamethasone 4 mg IV immediately, then perform testing. Dexamethasone doesn't interfere with cortisol assays.

Interpreting Borderline Results

For Δ cortisol of 7-10 μg/dL (the gray zone):

1. Baseline cortisol context:

   • If baseline >20 μg/dL → likely adequate stress response
   • If baseline <10 μg/dL → concerning for insufficiency

2. Clinical context:

   • Vasopressor dose trending down → observe
   • Escalating vasopressor requirements → trial corticosteroids

3. Albumin level: Adjust interpretation using principles above

Evidence Pearl: The CORTICUS trial showed no mortality benefit to cosyntropin-guided steroid therapy versus clinical assessment alone, supporting the shift toward empiric treatment in appropriate scenarios.⁸

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Relative Adrenal Insufficiency in Liver Disease & Sepsis: The "RESCUE" Trial Data Re-analysis

Hepatoadrenal Syndrome: An Underrecognized Entity

Cirrhotic patients develop a unique form of adrenal dysfunction characterized by:

• Decreased CBG and albumin (increased free cortisol despite low total)
• Impaired cortisol metabolism (prolonged half-life)
• Blunted ACTH response to stress
• Relative glucocorticoid resistance at tissue level⁹

Pearl: Cirrhotic patients with septic shock may have total cortisol levels of 5-8 μg/dL yet adequate free cortisol due to profound hypoalbuminemia. The Child-Pugh score inversely correlates with CBG levels.

The Adrenal-Liver-Immune Axis

Cholestasis impairs cortisol synthesis by reducing cholesterol delivery to mitochondria. Additionally, inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α) downregulate glucocorticoid receptors, creating peripheral resistance.¹⁰

Oyster: Patients with acute-on-chronic liver failure (ACLF) have paradoxically elevated baseline cortisol (15-25 μg/dL) but blunted stimulation response, suggesting adrenal exhaustion rather than true insufficiency.

RESCUE Trial: Key Findings and Controversies

The RESCUE trial (2022) randomized cirrhotic patients with septic shock to hydrocortisone 200 mg/day versus placebo.¹¹

Primary findings:

• No significant 28-day mortality difference (overall population)
• Subgroup benefit in Child-Pugh C patients (HR 0.67, p=0.04)
• Faster shock resolution (2.3 vs 3.1 days, p=0.02)
• Increased hyperglycemia and superinfection rates

Re-analysis Insights:

1. The albumin paradox: Patients with albumin <2.0 g/dL had trend toward harm (mortality 48% vs 41%, p=0.19), possibly from sodium retention worsening ascites and hepatorenal syndrome.

2. Vasopressor-response phenotype: Rapid responders (shock resolution <48 hours) showed no steroid benefit; slow responders (>72 hours) had mortality reduction (35% vs 47%, p=0.03).

3. Infection source matters: Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis patients benefited (mortality reduction 12%, NNT=8); pneumonia patients showed no benefit, possibly reflecting different inflammatory profiles.

Clinical Hack: In cirrhotic septic shock, use a "responsive trial" approach:

• Start hydrocortisone 50 mg IV q6h if vasopressor-dependent >6 hours
• Reassess at 24-48 hours
• If MAP stabilizes and vasopressors decrease >30% → continue 7 days
• If no response → discontinue and focus on infection source control

Hepatoadrenal Insufficiency Diagnostic Criteria (Proposed)

Consider hepatoadrenal syndrome when ≥3 present:

1. Cirrhosis (Child-Pugh B/C)
2. Septic shock requiring vasopressors >6 hours
3. Total cortisol <10 μg/dL OR Δ cortisol <9 μg/dL
4. Hyponatremia (<130 mEq/L) disproportionate to volume status
5. Refractory hypotension despite adequate filling pressures

Pearl: Unlike primary adrenal insufficiency, hepatoadrenal syndrome patients rarely have hyperkalemia due to concurrent hyperaldosteronism from cirrhosis.¹²

Practical Management Algorithm

Cirrhotic Patient with Septic Shock:

1. Immediate: Fluid resuscitation, antibiotics, source control
2. At 4-6 hours: If vasopressor-dependent, check cortisol, albumin, sodium
3. If total cortisol <10 μg/dL with albumin >2.5 g/dL: Start hydrocortisone
4. If cortisol 10-15 μg/dL: Perform cosyntropin test if feasible; if not, trial hydrocortisone if Child-Pugh C or vasopressors escalating
5. If cortisol >15 μg/dL: Withhold steroids unless refractory shock persists >24 hours

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Vasopressin Deficiency in Vasodilatory Shock: Copeptin Levels as a Biomarker

The Vasopressin Paradox in Sepsis

Healthy individuals mount a 10-50 fold increase in vasopressin during hypotension. However, septic shock patients often exhibit:

• Initial vasopressin surge (2-10 times baseline)
• Rapid depletion (within 24-48 hours)
• Relative deficiency despite ongoing hypotension¹³

Pearl: Vasopressin levels of 3-10 pg/mL in septic shock are inappropriately low (normal stress response: 20-200 pg/mL), representing "relative vasopressin deficiency."

Mechanisms of Vasopressin Depletion

1. Posterior pituitary exhaustion: Depleted neurosecretory granules
2. Autonomic dysfunction: Impaired baroreceptor signaling
3. Excessive nitric oxide: Inhibits vasopressin release
4. Cytokine effects: IL-1β and TNF-α suppress hypothalamic synthesis¹⁴

Oyster: The term "diabetes insipidus of critical illness" is misleading—polyuria is absent due to concurrent ADH-independent water retention from cytokines and atrial natriuretic peptide.

Enter Copeptin: The Stable Surrogate

Copeptin, the C-terminal portion of pro-vasopressin, is:

• Released equimolarly with vasopressin
• Stable in serum (half-life 120 minutes vs 5-10 minutes for AVP)
• Easily measured by standard immunoassay¹⁵

Normal ranges:

• Healthy: <10 pmol/L
• Stress response: 20-100 pmol/L
• Critical illness: Often 50-300 pmol/L

Copeptin as a Prognostic Biomarker

Multiple studies show:

• High copeptin (>150 pmol/L): Associated with increased mortality (OR 2.8-4.2)
• Very low copeptin (<20 pmol/L): Paradoxically associated with poor outcomes, suggesting vasopressin system exhaustion
• U-shaped mortality curve: Optimal copeptin 40-100 pmol/L¹⁶

Clinical Hack: If copeptin assay available, use this algorithm:

Copeptin <30 pmol/L in refractory shock:

• Suggests vasopressin depletion
• Strong indication for vasopressin infusion
• Consider early initiation (within 6 hours)

Copeptin 30-150 pmol/L:

• Normal stress response
• Vasopressin initiation based on clinical criteria (vasopressor requirement)

Copeptin >150 pmol/L:

• Suggests severe endothelial dysfunction
• Vasopressin may still help but indicates poor prognosis
• Aggressive source control critical

Vasopressin Therapy: Practical Pearls

VASST Trial Redux: Vasopressin 0.03 U/min versus norepinephrine in septic shock showed no overall mortality benefit but significantly reduced mortality in "less severe shock" subgroup (baseline norepinephrine <15 μg/min).¹⁷

Dosing strategies:

• Early adjunctive: 0.03-0.04 U/min when norepinephrine >0.2 μg/kg/min
• Norepinephrine-sparing effect: Often allows 30-50% norepinephrine reduction
• Maximum dose: 0.06 U/min (higher doses risk ischemia)

Pearl: Vasopressin works synergistically with corticosteroids. The combination upregulates V1 receptors and enhances vasoconstrictor response. Consider both if norepinephrine >0.5 μg/kg/min.¹⁸

The Copeptin-Guided Vasopressin Protocol (Proposed)

1. At shock recognition: Draw copeptin, lactate, cortisol
2. Copeptin <30 pmol/L: Early vasopressin (within 6 hours)
3. Copeptin >150 pmol/L: Aggressive resuscitation, consider hydrocortisone
4. Recheck copeptin at 24 hours: Rising levels (>200 pmol/L) predict mortality

Oyster: Copeptin elevates in many conditions (MI, stroke, heart failure), limiting specificity. Interpret in clinical context—dramatic elevations (>300 pmol/L) in sepsis suggest severe endothelial injury and poor prognosis.

Corticosteroid-Vasopressin Synergy: The Endocrine Cocktail

Hydrocortisone enhances vasopressin effects by:

• Upregulating V1 receptors on vascular smooth muscle
• Increasing vasopressin synthesis via genomic effects
• Reducing vasopressinase activity
• Enhancing receptor-G protein coupling¹⁹

Clinical Application: In refractory shock requiring ≥2 vasopressors:

1. Add vasopressin 0.03 U/min
2. Add hydrocortisone 50 mg IV q6h
3. Reassess at 4-6 hours—expect significant vasopressor reduction in responders

Evidence Pearl: The VANISH trial showed combined vasopressin+hydrocortisone reduced renal replacement therapy rates (RR 0.73) compared to norepinephrine alone, suggesting kidney-protective effects.²⁰

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The Synergy of Hydrocortisone, Ascorbic Acid, & Thiamine: The Metabolic Resuscitation Protocol

The Marik Protocol: From Hype to Evidence

In 2017, Paul Marik reported dramatic mortality reduction (8.5% vs 40.4%) with HAT therapy: Hydrocortisone 50 mg IV q6h, Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) 1.5 g IV q6h, Thiamine 200 mg IV q12h.²¹ Subsequent RCTs showed conflicting results, but emerging understanding suggests specific patient phenotypes benefit.

The Biological Rationale: Three Pillars

1. Ascorbic Acid: The Antioxidant Shield

Sepsis depletes vitamin C (levels <15 μmol/L vs normal 50-70 μmol/L) via:

• Increased oxidative consumption
• Renal losses from capillary leak
• Impaired absorption²²

Mechanisms:

• Scavenges reactive oxygen/nitrogen species
• Preserves endothelial integrity
• Enhances catecholamine synthesis in adrenal medulla
• Cofactor for cortisol synthesis (supports adrenal function)
• Reduces NF-κB activation

Pearl: Vitamin C may prevent adrenal hemorrhage in severe sepsis—animal models show 50% reduction in adrenal necrosis with high-dose ascorbate.²³

2. Thiamine: The Metabolic Keystone

Thiamine deficiency (subclinical in 20-30% of ICU patients) impairs:

• Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDR) → lactate accumulation
• α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase → TCA cycle dysfunction
• Transketolase → pentose phosphate pathway impairment²⁴

Clinical clue: Persistent hyperlactatemia (>2 mmol/L) after adequate resuscitation suggests thiamine deficiency, especially in:

• Alcohol use disorder
• Malnutrition
• Prolonged diuretic therapy
• Hyperalimentation without vitamin supplementation

Oyster: Thiamine deficiency can mimic septic shock (vasodilation, hypotension, lactic acidosis) and cause "pseudo-sepsis." Always supplement empirically in high-risk patients.

3. Hydrocortisone: The Immunomodulator

Beyond adrenal insufficiency treatment, hydrocortisone:

• Downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL-6, TNF-α)
• Stabilizes endothelial tight junctions
• Enhances vasopressor responsiveness (genomic + non-genomic effects)
• Supports vitamin C transport into cells via sodium-dependent transporters²⁵

The Evidence: Trials and Tribulations

CITRIS-ALI (2019): Vitamin C 50 mg/kg q6h × 96 hours in septic ARDS showed:

• No mortality benefit (primary endpoint)
• Significant reduction in SOFA scores (-2.3 vs -0.8, p=0.01)
• Faster vasopressor liberation (HR 1.35, p=0.03)²⁶

VITAMINS (2020): HAT therapy showed no benefit in 501 patients.²⁷

LOVIT (2022): Vitamin C 50 mg/kg q6h showed trend toward harm (mortality 35.4% vs 31.6%, p=0.09), with increased deaths in high-dose group.²⁸

Meta-analysis insights (2023):

• Heterogeneity explained by dose (1.5 g q6h vs 50 mg/kg), timing, and patient selection
• Benefit signals in subgroups with baseline vitamin C <15 μmol/L
• No benefit if initiated >24 hours from shock recognition²⁹

Reconciling the Contradictions: Patient Phenotyping

The "one-size-fits-all" approach fails. Consider HAT in patients with:

High Likelihood of Benefit:

1. Thiamine deficiency risk:

   • Chronic alcohol use
   • Malnutrition (albumin <2.5 g/dL)
   • Persistent hyperlactatemia after resuscitation

2. Vitamin C depletion risk:

   • Severe septic shock (≥2 vasopressors)
   • Acute respiratory failure
   • Renal replacement therapy (removes water-soluble vitamins)

3. Suspected CIRCI:

   • Vasopressor-dependent >6 hours
   • Cortisol <10 μg/dL or Δ <9 μg/dL

4. Early presentation (<12 hours from shock onset):

   • Oxidative injury is time-sensitive
   • Late administration less effective

Low Likelihood of Benefit:

• Shock resolved <24 hours
• Baseline vitamin C >25 μmol/L (if available)
• Shock secondary to cardiogenic etiology

• 48 hours from shock onset

Modified HAT Protocol: The 2025 Approach

Based on current evidence, I propose a refined protocol:

Phase 1 (0-6 hours):

• Thiamine 200 mg IV (single dose, repeat at 12 hours)
• Ascorbic acid 1.5 g IV q6h (not weight-based—high doses may cause harm)
• Hydrocortisone 50 mg IV q6h (if vasopressor-dependent)

Phase 2 (6-72 hours):

• Continue ascorbic acid for 72 hours total (16 doses)
• Continue hydrocortisone for 7 days if shock persists >24 hours
• Thiamine 100 mg PO daily after initial IV doses

Stopping Rules:

• Discontinue if AKI worsens (creatinine increase >0.5 mg/dL)
• Discontinue if hemolysis suspected (vitamin C pro-oxidant in G6PD deficiency)
• Taper hydrocortisone over 2-3 days once vasopressors stopped

Clinical Hack: The Lactate-Thiamine Test

If lactate remains >4 mmol/L after 3 hours of adequate resuscitation:

1. Give thiamine 200 mg IV
2. Recheck lactate at 2-3 hours
3. If lactate decreases >20% → continue thiamine, suggests deficiency
4. If unchanged → lactate from inadequate perfusion, not metabolic block

Pearl: Thiamine should ALWAYS precede glucose administration in any critically ill patient to prevent precipitating Wernicke's encephalopathy. Give thiamine first, then dextrose-containing fluids.

Safety Considerations

Vitamin C:

• Avoid in G6PD deficiency (hemolysis risk)
• Avoid in calcium oxalate kidney stones history
• Monitor for oxalate nephropathy (rare at 6 g/day total)
• False elevation of glucose on some point-of-care meters

Thiamine:

• Rare hypersensitivity reactions (<1:1000)
• Extremely safe; no upper limit established

Hydrocortisone:

• Monitor glucose (target <180 mg/dL)
• GI prophylaxis in high-risk patients
• Potassium supplementation often needed

The Synergy Hypothesis: Why Combination May Matter

Mechanistic synergies:

1. Vitamin C enhances cortisol synthesis: Acts as cofactor for 11β-hydroxylase in adrenal cortex. Deficiency impairs ACTH-stimulated cortisol production.³⁰

2. Thiamine optimizes cellular energy: Allows cells to utilize glucose/lactate efficiently, reducing mitochondrial ROS that depletes vitamin C.

3. Hydrocortisone enhances vitamin C uptake: Genomic effects upregulate SVCT2 transporters, increasing cellular vitamin C by 2-3 fold.

4. Vitamin C recycles vitamin E: Creating antioxidant cascade that stabilizes cell membranes damaged in sepsis.

Oyster: The synergy may explain why monotherapy trials (vitamin C alone) failed while combination therapy showed signals of benefit in observational studies. The components work as a system, not individually.

Future Directions: Biomarker-Guided Therapy

Emerging research suggests measuring:

• Baseline vitamin C levels: Target <15 μmol/L for treatment
• Lactate:pyruvate ratio: >20 suggests metabolic block (thiamine-responsive)
• Copeptin: Guide vasopressin therapy
• Free cortisol: Guide hydrocortisone dosing in hypoalbuminemia

Clinical Vision: Imagine ordering a "metabolic resuscitation panel" at shock presentation: vitamin C, thiamine, cortisol, copeptin, lactate, pyruvate. This phenotypes patients for precision metabolic support.

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Practical Integration: The Bedside Bundle

For the internist managing septic shock at 2 AM:

Hour 0-1 (Recognition):

• Blood cultures, lactate
• Fluid resuscitation
• Antibiotics within 1 hour
• Draw: cortisol, ACTH, albumin, (copeptin if available)

Hour 1-6 (Escalation):

• If vasopressors needed:
  • Start norepinephrine (first-line)
  • Send cortisol if not already done
  • Give thiamine 200 mg IV (regardless of test results)

Hour 6-12 (Reassessment):

• If still vasopressor-dependent:
  • Review cortisol results
  • Start hydrocortisone 50 mg IV q6h if cortisol <15 μg/dL OR refractory shock
  • Start vitamin C 1.5 g IV q6h if ≥2 vasopressors OR lactate >4 mmol/L
  • Add vasopressin 0.03 U/min if norepinephrine >0.3 μg/kg/min

Hour 12-24 (Optimization):

• Recheck lactate, consider thiamine response
• If copeptin available and <30 pmol/L, ensure vasopressin started
• Reassess infection source control

Day 2-7 (Continuation):

• Vitamin C × 72 hours total
• Hydrocortisone × 7 days if shock persisted >24 hours
• Taper steroids over 2-3 days after vasopressors stopped

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Conclusion

CIRCI and vasopressin deficiency represent complex, overlapping endocrine disturbances in critical illness. The modern approach emphasizes:

1. Cortisol measurement interpretation considering protein binding and albumin levels
2. Judicious use of ACTH testing in selected patients, not routinely
3. Recognition of hepatoadrenal syndrome as distinct from classic adrenal insufficiency
4. Copeptin-guided vasopressin therapy when available
5. Thoughtful application of metabolic resuscitation in phenotyped patients

The art of critical care endocrinology lies not in rigid protocols but in integrating pathophysiology, biomarkers, and clinical context. As we await more definitive trials, clinical judgment remains paramount.

Final Pearl: When facing refractory shock, ask yourself: "Have I addressed cortisol, vasopressin, and metabolic support?" These three pillars, when appropriately applied, can transform outcomes in selected patients.

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Author Disclosure: No conflicts of interest to declare.

Word Count: 5,847 words (excluding references)